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In 2000, I was asked to assist with an investigation into an interference problem with a radar. I recall predicting that this would be resolved in six months. A quarter of a century later, aspects of that original problem are still being addressed, and what started as an interference case has evolved into a safeguarding regimen. And, since that original case, many other interference and coexistence cases have followed. In a number of cases, I felt that my colleagues and I were feeling our way through the problem rather than following a well-understood process. Following the completion of an earlier book on the interactions of wind turbines and aviation radio and radar systems, a discussion with Nicki Dennis, commissioning editor at the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET), led me to think that perhaps it was time to capture some radar interference matters in the hope that it would help others recognize and deal with spectrum coexistence, safeguarding and interference: the issues that I would have liked to understand better twenty-five years ago. Every chapter in this book has been inspired by a real event or group of events. For example, helping make clear the role of frequency diversity in spectrum planning for Air Traffic Control (ATC), planning the replacement of a radar at an airport, reaching a resolution on interference between elements of Critical National Infrastructure (CNI); the list goes on. I am grateful to the Institution of Engineering and Technology for commissioning this book. It is satisfying to me that the IET should have chosen to take this project forward; the IET/IEE has been my professional home for over forty-five years. Special thanks to Nicki Dennis for commissioning the work and for helping the book take shape. Thanks also to the IET’s review panel, their wise counsel and ideas as the book was being developed were very valuable. Particular thanks to Olivia Wilkins, who has been a great help throughout the project, providing advice in so many ways, gently reminding me of the passage of time and for her great skills in saving my time. I have had the good fortune, over a long period of time, to have worked with some highly talented, skilled and very professional people, and I owe them a debt of gratitude for teaching me about this complex subject and, also, for helping me to shape my views about it; I want, very much, to recognise this help. I hope I refer below to all those who have helped. If I have missed anyone off the list, I apologise. I also want to make the point that while I list the affiliations of these individuals, the views expressed here are my own. They do not represent any of the organisations listed, nor have any of the individuals listed sought to express the views of their organisations. To my friends and former associates from Ofcom: Dr David Bacon, former Head of Propagation and Technical Computing; Richard Benson, former Field Engineering Supervisor; Phil Dyson, Field Spectrum Engineer; Chris Haslett, former Head of Propagation; Alan Holmes, former Field Spectrum Engineer; Paul Jarvis, former Head of Business Radio and former Head of Technical Services; Ken Mok and Mal O’Dell, former Field Spectrum Engineers thank you all. Thanks to Kevin Donaghue, Dr Robert Rohlfs, Roger Wakefield and Dr Victor Ma all systems engineers with the MITRE Corporation; Greg Krowel (US Air Force Space Command) and to Frank Smith of North West Research Associates. To my friends and current associates in Ofcom: Alistair Abingdon, Field Spectrum Engineer; Aaron Arnold, Field Spectrum Engineer; Clare Allen, Senior Spectrum Engineer; Sarah Allen, Spectrum Engineer; Aaron Arnold, Field Spectrum Engineer; Dr Armelle Boisset, Director Spectrum Engineering; Malika Greene, Spectrum Technical Policy Engineer; Dr Steve Leach, Director Terrestrial Spectrum; Steve Munday, Principal Technical Analyst; Michael Newberry, Spectrum Engineer: particular thanks to Steve Leach for his help securing permission to use some of the images reproduced here and his wise thoughts about future spectrum considerations and to Clare for giving me the benefit of her extensive practical knowledge of the ITU. Thanks to Will Boxx, L. Vincent Oberkirch and Greg Smith (US 85th Engineering Installation Squadron). Patrick Lipka and Oliver Olson (MITRE Corporation). My thoughts and approach to the problems discussed have been greatly assisted by Frank H Sanders (US Institute for Telecommunications Sciences). Thank you to Professor Daniel Conley and Dr Duncan Wright of the University of Plymouth and Professor Lucy Wyatt of the University of Sheffield for information on the Wellen High Frequency Radar System. Daniel and Duncan were also kind enough to provide some excellent images of their HF radar system. Thanks to Jake Gilmore, Head of Communications at the UK Science and Technology Research Facility Council, for his assistance with images from the Chilbolton Experimental Radar. In Chapter 7, I revisit the subject of wind turbine interference with radar. This was an opportunity to deal with problems that have emerged with aviation radar and wind turbines in the last two years. A number of people helped with this by providing wise counsel, helpful questions, suggestions and support. Thanks to John Taylor, WPAC Limited; Sam Johnson, Senior Aviation Manager, AIFCL; Andy Knill, Extensity Limited and former Head of Surveillance and Spectrum Manager CAA; Jim Wylie, Senior Aviation Policy Analyst, Scottish Power; Tim Mockridge, Development Manager, REG Power; Dujon Goncalves Collins, Senior Aviation Strategy Adviser, RWE; Anne Stephenson, Head of Technical, Onpath Energy and Steve Smith, Rethink Consulting. A particular focus of this chapter is meteorological radar. Thanks to Mr Ahmet Kumas for his assistance with a field trip to Den Helder, his local knowledge was very valuable. Alison Brown and Nathan Reece at the Royal Meteorological Society assisted their prompt assistance with obtaining permission to use an historical image was much appreciated. Thank you to the staff of the American Meteorological Society Permissions Department for assistance with image rights. Thanks to Dr Annakaisa von Lerber and Dr Hidde Leijnse of OPERA for their assistance with image rights but also for their encouragement and help with identifying Doppler processing algorithms. Thank you to the MetService of New Zealand for providing me with information on interference problems with their radar network and for permission to reproduce the images in this work. Thank you to Fiorela Bertone of the Argentinian Weather Service (Servicio Meteorológico Nacional (SMN) Argentina for providing images from the Ezeiza radar. Thanks to Dr Adriaan Dokter, Dr Andrew Farnworth and David Wiles, of Cornell University; Prof Paul Hurtado University of Nevada and staff at the University of Wisconsin for their assistance in obtaining composite NEXRAD images illustrating bird migration. In Chapter 10, I have compiled some suggestions for further work and research. The help I received from many people cannot be understated. I hope I have captured their thoughts faithfully. Thanks to: Cyprien de Cosson, Senior Radio Spectrum Engineering Specialist at Tampnet, in the Netherlands, who provided advice from his encyclopaedic knowledge of radio matters; Malika Greene, Technical Policy Engineer Ofcom who gave context to educational requirements; Andy Knill, Extensity Limited and former Head of Surveillance and Spectrum Manager CAA brought a regulator’s view; Dr Richard Rudd of Plum Consulting brought his understanding of spectrum engineering and also an educator’s view of the future; Dr Steve Leach, Director Terrestrial Spectrum Ofcom gave his own perspective with a leaning towards different aspect of regulatory matters; Sarah Sasson, Marketing Manager and Dr Alice Missud, researcher at ATDI who provided invaluable insights into the use of artificial intelligence and its future in spectrum engineering; Ian Taft, UK Ministry of Defence, Defence Spectrum Management, Directorate of Strategy & Military Digitisation, gave his own insightful perspective on future requirements for the military spectrum and wider industry matters. Thanks also to Dr Mahsa Zolfaghari, Course Leader in Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence, University of Staffordshire London for specific advice on artificial intelligence and how it might shape the future of spectrum engineering; views expressed in Chapter 10. I should also add that Dr Zolfaghari gave valuable advice on many of the ideas expressed in this book. Special thanks also to my good friend and colleague Mark Gallagher, Dunnock Limited, for his wide knowledge of communications engineering, military practice and wise counsel and over many years. The staff at the IET library, as always, have been a great help. Special thanks to Yen Le who helped with the research when creating the proposal for this book and Anne Locker who assisted me greatly with research. And thanks also to Amy Miller, Senior Research Manager at the British Library Intellectual Property Department for her introduction to ESPACENET and finding information on Patents. Special thanks to Valerie Collinson for her patience and hard work proof reading this work and her helpful suggestions. And to some dear friends who started this journey with me but sadly have now left the field, Wg Cdr Clive Harrison (RAF Retired), John Powell, and Rodney Shepherd (US Air Force Space Command) thank you.