دانلود کتاب چگونه و چرا احساسات تغییر می‌کنند -مبانی هیجان در روان‌درمانی شناختی-رفتاری

There is a bewildering array of psychological approaches to clinical therapy—Hersen and Sledge’s (2002) encyclopedia of psychotherapy methods runs to two volumes. There are distinctive schools of thought, such as behavioral, cognitive, socio-cultural, or psychodynamic. Fourteen distinct systems are covered in Wedding and Corsini’s Current Psychotherapies (2018). Within each system, there are different foundational principles and theories, and within each theory, there are different techniques. In reality, the techniques that psychotherapists use are not as distinct as they sometimes seem, as treatment packages tend to have a limited number of “common elements” (Chorpita et al., 2007). And what appear to be differences are often in the terms used, the constructs emphasized, and the theoretical rationales offered (Goldfried et al., 2011). This is because techniques for helping clients change are somewhat cultish rather than supported by a universally accepted scientific foundation, even those claiming to be “evidence-based.” New therapies often have influential leaders, followers, and advocates—offering workshops and training opportunities—backed by studies specifically designed to demonstrate their efficacy. Their effectiveness is usually less welldocumented. Only positive outcomes are typically reported, but there is increasing interest in the possible adverse effects of psychological interventions (Klein et al., 2024). Studies evaluating new treatment ideas are rarely process studies demonstrating that a method worked because of the principles expounded. Confounds with powerful influences such as client expectancies, the social role of being a client, and the emotional relationship with the therapist, are difficult to separate. Outcome studies typically do not show if or by how much a new procedure is better than an old one. The “treatment as usual” received by the control group is not usually a well-validated treatment from the previous decades. This expansion of therapeutic methods and tactics that have an ostensible basis of research support can be confusing for both consumers and therapists. While stauncher academics have argued that only empirically validated methods should ever be used by practitioners, studies of what clinicians do in practice have repeatedly confirmed that most are self-described eclectics. “I use different techniques according to the client’s needs and problems”; “I often introduce a combination of methods”; “I like down-to-earth behavioral approaches, but I sometimes incorporate ideas from psychoanalysis”; “I’m flexible, so I’m always willing to try out a new method after attending a workshop.” I have heard these kinds of statements from many fellow clinicians, former students, and colleagues for decades—and I respectfully understand why. Arnold Lazarus (2001), one of the foremost pioneers of clinical behavior therapy, wrote how his experiences with diverse clients led him to rely on a whole variety of different techniques, a practice he called “multimodal therapy.” There is one different approach to formulating and implementing psychological interventions for helping people cope and thrive and manage their lives. Rather than trying to empirically validate each new technique someone devises, the foundational intervention principles could be drawn from current scientific knowledge and an understanding of the many psychological processes that typically influence people (Evans, 1996). Then, based on those scientific principles, methods could be devised with their effectiveness determined for each individual client through careful monitoring (by both client and therapist) of progress towards previously established goals. Long ago in Britain, Monte Shapiro, the leading clinical psychology educator of his day, advocated the concept of the individual client being in an N-of-1 clinical research study (Shapiro, 1969). This became one of the founding principles of applied behavior therapy. There are a few well-known academic leaders in clinical psychology who have long advocated some version of this “measurement-based care” approach (Castonguay et al., 2021; Goldfried, 2011). The most recent and increasingly sophisticated arguments have been offered by Litz (2023a) and Levinson et al. (2025). And that, all sounds sensible and doable, except that the basic psychological knowledge itself changes rapidly, is complex, not easily learned, and usually taught during an early part of training—in the typical undergraduate psychology curriculum—rather than later in the more applied part of a trainee’s exposure to real-life clients. Furthermore, a huge percentage of the psychological research is of only limited relevance to the clinical task of trying to effect change in a client, which is the purpose of psychotherapy. In two previous works, I attempted to fill that gap by summarizing for present and future practitioners of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) the major fundamental concepts from basic and applied psychology having relevance to the design of treatment for any problem. The first volume, How and why people change, explained how therapy can be focused on how to change behaviors (things like skills, habits, impulses, reactions, and so on—what people do) when those facing a problem are seeking treatment. The second volume, How and why thoughts change, is focused on how thoughts (ideas, memories, reasoning, decisions, understanding) change. The focus of this third volume in the series, How and why feelings change, is on how feelings (emotions, moods, likes and dislikes, values, motives, attitudes) emerge, evolve, and change. Needless to say, human activity always involves all three: overt behavior, internal cognition, and affect, working together all the time. Actions, thoughts, and feelings are not truly separable parts of the human condition, but they have been studied individually as partly separable categories. The theoretical literature still tends to be influenced strongly by a certain intellectual rivalry—cognitive scientists might argue that emotions depend on appraisal and judgment of a situation, behavior analysts emphasize context and consequences over inner thoughts and reasoning, neuroscientists focus on brain activity (especially neural circuits and hormonal), sociobiologists on evolutionary forces, social learning theorists think of modeling, culture, and shared language, humanistic therapists are immersed in constructivist models of meaning-making, and psychoanalytic scholars see emotional forces engaged in battle with conscious thoughts, selfpreservation, and social rules. It’s a theoretical jungle out there. For both practitioners and trainees, this third book hopes to provide you with a compass, a machete, and insect repellant to make your way through it.