دانلود کتاب سیستماتیک مولکولی هلمینت‌های انگلی

Systematics is the intersection of phylogeny and taxonomy, where phylogeny refers to an analysis of evolutionary or genealogical relationships, while taxonomy is the process of species delimitation, classification, and standard nomenclature. However, we sometimes face challenges in species identification based on morphological characters, particularly for cryptic lineages, homoplasy, morphological plasticity caused by environmental adaptation, etc. Recently, molecular systematics came into play due to molecular advances, where relationships among individuals and species based on the appropriate molecular genetic markers can be revealed.