دانلود کتاب فیزیک هسته ای مزوسکوپی – از هسته تا آشوب کوانتومی تا انتقال سیگنال کوانتومی

In the beginning of the 20th century, nuclear physics started with the discovery of a positively charged small object in the center of every atom, the nucleus. Gradually, it was found that the nucleus consists of nucleons — positively charged protons and neutrons with no electric charge. These particles interact through strong nuclear forces, very similar for protons and neutrons, keeping the nuclear constituents together inside a volume by five orders of magnitude smaller than the size of the atom defined by the electronic cloud. Many nuclei of the same chemical element live in various modifications (isotopes) which differ by the number N of neutrons for the same electric charge defined by the number Z of protons. The chemistry is mainly determined by the electrons and the atomic level architecture of molecules and crystals. At typical nuclear density, the intrinsic quark–gluon structure of nucleons is not revealed explicitly so that its study requires huge accelerators or extremely refined experimental techniques. The 20th century demonstrated broad applications of nuclear physics in peaceful and military technology. The harvesting of specific isotopes is one of the main goals of the new nuclear accelerators. The abundance of natural isotopes in the world is a crucial ingredient for modern theories of the evolution of the universe. The nuclei also conceal keys to the understanding of the charge asymmetry of the universe, many properties of elementary particles, their interactions and decays.